What is Socrates' argument against Crito in the argument of the same Essay

What is Socrates' argument against Crito in the argument of the same name Is it persuasive why or why not - Essay Example Crito gets to the prison where Socrates was serving time with a plan hatched to break Socrates out of prison. It is after learning about this that a debate ensues on the justification of Socrates escape (Anton 73) In his argument, Socrates fronts that while the sentencing he received was wrong to begin with, it got reached through a legitimate process. In his thinking, Socrates was of the idea that the trial he got subjected to got done according to the law, he had the chance to defend himself against the allegations, and the verdict got passed by citizens. The matter at hand in this argument was whether content justice, which refers to getting the best result, overrules procedural justice that is following the laid down procedure, or vice versa (Anton 74). Socrates states in his argument that we have to pick whether the law enabled social peace is more vital than an innocent man’s life. Socrates is of the idea that social peace, which gets enabled by the law, is superior to his innocence. In building his case, Socrates puts forward a paternalistic claim stating that since the laws enabled his dad to marry his mother, he considered the law as his parents. He also states that the laws ordered his parents to take him to school. As such, he is both a slave and offspring of law. Socrates feels that he owes the law similar unconditional obedience that slaves owe to their owners and children owe to their parents (Anton 75). Socrates conclusion is that an injustice cannot be made right by another injustice. In this effect, the wrong conviction he had been given would not be made right by escaping prison. Socrates chooses to remain in the confines of his cell as a result of his unwavering belief and faith in Greek law, which he acknowledges awarded him the opportunity to lead a fulfilling life, and attain extensive knowledge (Anton 75). In his thinking, without

Born Global and Gradual Internationalization Essay Example for Free

Born Global and Gradual Internationalization Essay In traditional models, firm internationalization is seen as a gradual process of capability build-up by which firms slowly accumulate the resources necessary to face foreign market uncertainty (Eriksson, Johanson, Majkgard, Sharma, 1997). These models assume that firms grow in their domestic markets before they start to export extensively. This is supposedly so because there is a learning process involved in facing unknown markets, and such a process requires knowledge and resources to face and overcome uncertain outcomes and costly investments. Knowledge and resources are progressively acquired through experience, first in known domestic markets and then in larger foreign markets (for a review see Leonidou Katsikeas, 1996). Much literature has documented this liability of foreignness, or the cost faced by firms that operate abroad, and the need for companies to create capabilities in foreign markets (Mezias, 2002; Zaheer, 1995; Zaheer Mosakowski, 1997). Conventional models of internationalization have drawn criticism (Andersen, 1993; McDougall, Shane, Oviatt, 1994; Turnbull, 1987). There is empirical evidence that shows the existence of small, young firms, endowed with very limited resources, which begin to export immediately after their foundation. For instance, Moen and Servais (2002) reported, for a sample of Norwegian, French, and Danish firms, the existence of many companies exporting a large share of their total sales shortly after their establishment. Such empirical evidence suggests that the Uppsala model is not the only possible way to describe the firm internationalization processes. Turnbull (1987) criticizes the determinism inherent in stage-based models, and argues against the notion that all firms, regardless of industry type, country context, or other variables, must inevitably follow a fixed route to become international. Other authors (Chadee Mattsson, 1998; Erramilli Rao, 1993; OFarrell, Wood, Zheng, 1998) contend that the internationalization process is not equally complex and costly in all industries. In industries where trade barriers, fixed investment, and transportation costs are low, such as services, internationalization may be less costly in terms of monetary and organizational resources. The born global argument essentially states that firm internationalization does not have to go through the progressive accumulation of resources and capabilities. It posits that firms can start exporting from the moment they are created, and it asserts that firms are capable of penetrating markets that are far away, both geographically or â€Å"psychically† (on account of their different cultural and language traits), despite having limited resources and little accumulated organizational learning. The definition of a born-global firm was coined by McKinsey Co.in a report that analyzed a sample of Australian exporting firms (McKinsey Co. , 1993). It was used to describe firms that, apparently, had undergone faster processes of internationalization than would have been expected for firms of similar size, age, and nature. It was thus proposed that these firms were born globals. Cavusgil (1994), and also Knight and Cavusgil (1996), elaborated McKinsey Co. s empirical observation to argue against traditional models of internationalization. Cavusgil (1994: 18) went as far as to state that â€Å"gradual internationalization is dead. † These claims sparked an academic debate revolving around different theories of internationalization. Since then several authors (Collis, 1991; Knight Cavusgil, 2004; Madsen Servais, 1997; McDougall et al. , 1994; Oviatt McDougall, 1994) have attempted to provide a theoretical foundation for these empirical observations. The theory has focused on establishing the antecedents of such firm behavior. One research stream argues that the born global phenomenon will be most prevalent in knowledge-intensive firms, such as those that make software or information technology products. Once created, many knowledge-intensive products, such as software, can be replicated at low marginal cost. Amongst the 25% Born Global firms in Australia who achieved 76% of their sales through exports, several are high-tech firms, but the typical firm uses well-known technology. Because of this, it is argued that small knowledge-intensive firms can bypass the home market and target foreign markets, or enter domestic and international markets simultaneously (Bell, 1995; Bell, McNaughton, Young Crick, 2003; Boter Holmquist, 1996). Autio, Sapienza, and Almeida (2000) found that firm knowledge-intensity was positively correlated to international sales growth, and several studies (Bell, 1995; Boter Holmquist, 1996; Coviello, 1994) have documented the tendency for firms in knowledge-intensive sectors to internationalize rapidly. According to cavusgil, born global companies which normally compete in niche markets are very flexible and move fast. They are successful due to: 1. Skill to satisfy customized or specialised product requests from customers. 2. Advances in communication technology and let their managers work across boundaries and their response time is shorter and are very flexible and adaptable. A proposition often made is that the home market has little importance for the born-global firm, to the point of conjecturing that a small local demand might drive the firms efforts to seek opportunities abroad. Bell et al. (2003: 341), for instance, argue: â€Å"This behavior is particularly prevalent among firms operating in small open economies and in emerging nations, where domestic demand may be limited. † For example, Denmark is a very small market and firms are left with no other option but go to different markets to increase their sales and hence as a result there are many Born Global firms in Denmark. Approximately 39% of the firms in Denmark are born global. Most of the firms are extremely active exporters with exports accounting for almost 70% of their sales. Previous international experience of founders and employees has also been proposed as playing a mediating role in early internationalization (Bengtsson, 2004). Such experience enhances the firms ability to learn and, consequently, to internationalize rapidly. Some authors argue that the new firms knowledge and accumulated experience amount, in the end, to the entrepreneurs own knowledge about other markets (Knight Cavusgil, 2004). Madsen and Servais (1997) posit that differences between traditional exporters and born-global firms can be attributed largely to differences in their founders backgrounds. The founders international experience may affect the extent to which psychic distance from strategic markets is perceived to be an obstacle to internationalization. It is plausible that entrepreneurs with international experience have a well-developed network of contacts that allows them to internationalize earlier (Contractor, Hsu, Kundu, 2005; Kundu Katz, 2003). In the past 2 years several scholarly studies have focused on the network dynamics of international new ventures (Coviello, 2006; Mathews Zander, 2007; Mudambi Zahra, 2007; Zhou, Wu, Luo, 2007). To summarize, it appears that many theoretical and empirical considerations support the existence of born-global firms. This notwithstanding, extant theoretical developments and empirical studies are far from proving that â€Å"gradual internationalization is dead† (Cavusgil, 1994). The born-global literature is still lacking a precise definition of what a born-global firm is, and some existing definitions are tautological. Moen (2002) asserts, for instance, that â€Å"although firms that follow this incremental development pattern may still exist, the normal pattern may be different in the new millennium. † His assertion is supported by the fact that between 30 and 40% of the exporting firms in his sample of Norwegian and French firms were exporting within 2 years of their creation. The fact that 60–70% of firms in the sample were not exporting within those 2 years seems to be absent from the discussion. It also appears that the born-global argument can be made empirically stronger by simply changing the time span to first export required for a firm to be considered born global and also what percentage of sales should exports account for. Inconsistency in definition criteria makes it difficult to compare the born-global phenomenon across different studies. Another important thing in deciding whether a firm is truly global is to consider the Psychic distance I. e. ; the difference in culture, language and trade agreements between the firms country and the country to which it exports. For example, in Costa Rica many firms established a very dynamic trade with nearby countries. These countries – regional neighbours such as Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras – are close to Costa Rica in terms of cultural traits and business practices. Few firms, however, exported upon birth to the more challenging strategic markets, such as the US and Europe, which have very different business and cultural practices. The majority of firms that were classified as â€Å"born global† firms, turned out to actually be â€Å"born regional. † This means that although they started exporting very early in their lives, and continued exporting a fairly large share of their sales, much of these exports were aimed at regional neighbouring countries. There was only one firm, whose current exports account for 81% of total sales, that started exporting, right from its inception, to the most strategic market: the United States. This firm can be said to be a true â€Å"born global† firm, because it started out with more than half of its customers in a foreign country located far in terms of psychic distance. The existence of born-global firms contradicts much evidence that has shown the predominantly regional focus of the international activities of multinational enterprises (Rugman Brain, 2003). In the absence of country-specific advantages, one should expect a strong firm-resource endowment in order for firms to expand abroad successfully (Rugman Verbeke, 2005). Finally, the born-global conjecture lacks empirical support from firms that start operating in small developing countries. Developing countries could prove a suitable litmus test for the born-global hypothesis. This is so because the internal markets of developing countries are small. Hence, according to these theories, firms must look to larger, foreign, markets in order to grow, and therefore firms that operate in small developing countries should have strong incentives to internationalize early. Gradual internationalization is a concept that is still very relevant depending on the industry of the firm and size of the market. If a firm is in a Industry where it takes time to learn and an Industry that requires huge investment and is based in very big market it will adopt the Gradual internationalization model.

A Study On Office Ergonomics Management Essay

A Study On Office Ergonomics Management Essay Office ergonomics serve important functions in preparing for, and responding to, workplace critical incidents. Workplace critical incidents are sudden, unexpected events that often are significant enough to overwhelm normal coping responses. They vary in type and severity and can affect employees as well as management. Such incidents can seriously affect the psychological, emotional, and physical well-being of employees, employers, and the entire organization. Negative effects from the unresolved trauma of a critical incident in the workplace can contribute to overall lowered levels of productivity, poor performance, more frequent interpersonal conflict, increased absenteeism, increased use of physical and mental health benefits, increased workers compensation claims, higher turnover, higher rates of alcohol and other substance misuse and abuse, and lower overall employee satisfaction and morale. According to Jones (1985:11-12) it is recognized that no one is immune to problems. It is quite common that a problem in ones sphere of life will affect the other spheres, that is, it is possible that work related problems to have adverse effects on an employees relationship with his or her colleagues, friends, supervisors and family members while on the other side of the coin a person experiencing personal problem originating from home can have a negative impact on the individual performance at work. Already, healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and media and entertainment industries find over 25 percent of their workforce engaged in knowledge generation, idea generation, and innovation. Professional knowledge workers share in the responsibility of generating the competitive edge of big enterprise. Bryan and Joyce (2005) report several statistics reinforcing how professionals experience interconnection. They cite that many large national and global organizations may employ as many as 10,000 professional knowledge generators within their corporations. These people may have as many as 50 million bilateral relationships. From these numbers, one can make out that 21st century workers do not perform in a traditional vertical or linear organizational design. Thus employee should be at the centre of every business activity and they should be integrated in a way that they deliver to the core strategy of the business. Employee should be regarded as a direct means of achieving the objectives of the company and they should be considered as an integral element of business practices in view to increase performance and brand name of the company. That why the social need and belonging is very important to present in companies so that employees can get a sense that they know they feel recognised in working in the company. Individuals facing both personal and work related problems do exist at Air Mauritius Ltd. These problems may have their origin with their work design, interpersonal relationships at work or at home, health problem, psycho-social problems, inability to meet family and social life expectations, poor personal financial management, lack of trust and communication with the organization or suffering from stress as a result of perceiving organizational practices as being unfair towards our person. In view that the social dimension of the enterprises in Mauritius is becoming more and more important, Air Mauritius Ltd should at all cost put its people at the heart of its economic and social progress by focusing on their needs for support when they face problem that can shatter both their personal and professional life. To respond to these needs Mauritian airline company should adopt a holistic approach by putting in place broad and explicit structures for dealing with employee problems through early identification and referral, that is, professional attention so that the employee can be assisted to unleash his/her potential to cope with work and life events that may causing harm to his/her personal and professional life. Organisational Profile Air Mauritius Ltd which is one of the main drivers of the Mauritian economy was incorporated in June 1967 and started operations with a Piper Navajo to transport passengers to Rà ©union Island. Forty three (44) years later, the unique Mauritian airline company has grown with an actual fleet of 12 aircraft comprising of 8 wide bodied aircraft, 2 narrow bodied aircraft and 2 prop turbo aircraft and 3 helicopters. The different types of aircraft are illustrated below: Types of Aircraft Number Airbus A340-300 5 Airbus A340-300E 2 Airbus A319-100 2 ATR 72-500 2 Airbus A330-200 1 Total 12 Helicopter 3 Table 3.1-Types of Aircraft From a domestic airline carrier, Air Mauritius Ltd has become the leading scheduled international passenger airline in the Indian Ocean and also serves 28 destinations touching four (4) continents namely Africa, Asia, Australia Europe. It has also expanded its scope of service which includes operation of international and domestic scheduled air services for the carriage of passengers, freight and mail and ancillary services such as cargo. The greatest part of the revenue generation comes from the business and leisure travel with the latter being the main passenger segment which generated 86% of the revenue, 10.4% from cargo services and 4% from other activities conducted by its subsidiaries. During the past four financial years, the number of passengers carried by Air Mauritius Ltd has been fluctuating due to decrease in travel demand as a result of the world unprecedented financial crisis that hit countries where the mass of our passengers are located. Apart from operating aircraft, involved in air cargo services and other aviation ancillary activities, Air Mauritius Ltd has also diversified in other business activities through its subsidiaries namely: Mauritius Estate Development Corporation Ltd (MEDCOR) which is engaged in leasing of office and commercial space Pointe Cotton resort Hotel Co Ltd which owns Cotton bay Hotel in Rodrigues Island and provides hotel accommodation together with all hotel services Airmate Ltd which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Air Mauritius Ltd incorporated in 2006 to provide call centre and IT enabling services Air Mauritius (SA) (Pty) Ltd which acts as a travel agent for Air Mauritius in South Africa Organisational Structure Apart from its Board of Directors and the Chief Executive Office, Air Mauritius is made up of the following clusters: Flight Operations Cabin Operations Grounds Operations Technical Services Human Resources Organisational Development Internal Audit Finance Information Systems Strategic Planning Communication Corporate Affairs Commercial Procurement Cargo Manpower composition Air Mauritius has a total workforce of 2199 employees who work in Mauritius and it comprises of: Male 1406 Female 793 Total 2199 Table 3.3No of employees Human Resources Issues One of the mandates of the company is to manage and develop its human resources so as it can attained its corporate objectives. Air Mauritius Ltd through its mission statement and values, it demonstrates that they value their employees as one of its missions is to be a rewarding performance driven organistaion and a great place to work and promise to display professional and caring attitude and speak and act positively with our valued customers which include also the employees. Air Mauritius like other business enterprises is not immune of human resource issues that impact on corporate and financial performance. The most common features are labour turnover, termination of employment, sickness absenteeism, injuries at work, medical costs etc and a review of the data of associated with these problems reveal the following: For most people, work is a safe haven. But high-profile incidents/accidents at workplace and safety and health laws are compelling employers to develop preventive programs to mitigate these problems, resulting in the creation of a promising new niche for health and safety professionals. Improved personal control and comfort needs of employees triggered the concern among organisations to provide them with an environment and office design, which fulfill the employees needs and helps to improve their productivity. Most people spend fifty percent of their lives within indoor environments, which significantly influence their mental status, actions, abilities and performance. (Amina Hameed 2009 adopted from (Sundstrom 1994)). Better physical environment of office will boost the employees and ultimately improve their productivity. Various literature pertain to the study of multiple offices and office buildings indicated that the factors such as dissatisfaction, cluttered workplaces and the physical environment are playing a major role in the loss of employees productivity (Amina Hameed 2009 adopted from Carnevale 1992, Clements-Croome 1997). According to Betty G. Dillard (February 1997) the discipline of ergonomics emerged in United Kingdom in the late 1940s and was first officially recognised in the USA in 1957 through the Human Factors Society. In the 1960s and 1970s ergonomics became a familiar study to the field of industrial engineering, and by the late 1970s ergonomics was recognized as a multidisciplinary field at the University of Michigan School of Engineering. Ergonomics is an important factor in achieving and maintaining high levels of worker productivity. Jeffrey E. Fernandez (April 1995) defined ergonomics as the design of the workplace, equipment, machine, tool, product, environment, and system, while considering the humans physical, physiological, biomechanical, and psychological capabilities, and optimising the effectiveness and productivity of work systems while assuring the safety, health, and wellbeing of the workers. Ergonomics is a discipline concerned with all aspects of designing for people. The aim in ergonomics is to fit the task to the individual, not the individual to the task. Ann Brook (1998) further defined ergonomics as the practice of learning about human characteristics and then using that understanding to improve peoples interaction with the things they use and with the environments in which they do so Hundreds of millions of people around the world work in offices. Improving the quality of these environments through user-centered design would provide enormous health, social, and economic benefits to society. Office ergonomics provides an arbitrary framework for integrating a large body of research that is relevant to the design of office work environments to optimize the health, safety, comfort, and effectiveness of their human occupants. (Jay L. Brand 2009) Office ergonomics is an applied branch of human factors and ergonomics. At least 50% of the worlds population presently works in some form of office (Jay L. Brand, P.h.D.( 2009) adapted from Brounen, and Eichholtz 2004; Charles et al, 2004; Veitch et al 2007). To demonstrate this potential, at least 2% of the American workforce suffers from a work-related musculoskeletal disorder (WRMSD) annually (Jay L. Brand 2009 adapted from Faucett et al 2002). Within the European Union (EU), work-related musculoskeletal disorders (cumulative trauma disorders) constitute 40-50% of this (Jay L. Brand, P.h.D.( 2009) adapted from Drury et al., 2006). Several basic research areas inform office ergonomics body of knowledge and guide its practice, including anthropometry, biomechanics, work physiology, environmental science (e.g., indoor air quality, personal space/territoriality; Sommer, 1969), individual differences, visual and auditory perception, mental workload, information processing, and human motivation. A number of applied areas of interest also enrich office ergonomics research and practice, including macroergonomics, participative ergonomics, usability, job and task analysis, human-computer interaction, displays and controls, organizational design and behavior, and organizational development. Office ergonomics must not only provide design guidance to minimize or eliminate health and safety issues; increasingly, the discipline needs to deliver positive organizational outcomes such as enhancing employee recruitment, retention, and productivity (Jay L. Brand2009 adapted from Lahiri et al, 2005) Hughes (2007) surveyed 2000 employees pertain to various organizations and industries in multiple levels. The reported results of these survey showed that nine out of ten believed that a workspace quality affects the attitude of employees and increases their productivity. Employees in different organizations have different office designs. Every office has unique furniture and spatial arrangements, lighting and heating arrangements and different levels of noise. Office design Office design is defined by BNet Business Dictionary (2008) as, the arrangement of workspace so that work can be performed in the most efficient way. Office design incorporates both ergonomics and work flow, which examine the way in which work is performed in order to optimise layout. Office design is an important factor in job satisfaction. It affects the way in which employees work, and many organisations have implemented open-plan offices to encourage teamwork. Office design is very vital in employee satisfaction, and the broad concept of office design also includes the workflow. The work is analysed initially and it is identified that how it is accomplished and then the overall setting of the office is made according to that flow. This ensures the smooth running of work in the office without hindrances. Over the years, many organisations have devised new designs and techniques to construct office buildings, which can boost productivity, and magnetise more and more employees. Many researches have noted that, the physical layout of the workspace, along with well-organised management processes, is playing a significant role in increasing employees productivity and enhancing organisational performance (Amina Hameed 2009 adapted from Uzee, 1999; Leaman and Bordass, 1993; Williams et al. 1985). A study was conducted on US workplace environment by taking a sample size of 2013. The research was related to; workplace designs, work satisfaction, and productivity. 89 percent of the respondents rated design, from important to very important. Almost 90 percent of senior officials revealed that effective workplace design is important for the increase in employees productivity. The final outcome of the survey suggested that businesses can enhance their productivity by improving their workplace designs. A rough estimation was made by executives, which showed that almost 22 percent increase can be achieved in the companys performance if their offices are well designed. (Gensler, 2006). It is an undoubtedly fact that almost many organisations still do not give much importance to workplace design. As many as 40 percent of the employees believe that their companies want to keep their costs low that is why their workplaces have bad designs; and 46 percent of employees think that the priority list of their company does not have workplace design on top. When data was summarised, almost one out of every five employees rated their workplace environment from, fair to poor. 90 percent admitted that their attitude about work is adversely affected by the quality of their workplace environment. Yet again 89 percent blamed their working environment for their job dissatisfaction (Gensler, 2006). The American Society of Interior Designers (ASID, 1999) carried out an independent study and revealed that the physical workplace design is one of the top three factors, which affect performance and job satisfaction. The study results showed that 31 percent of people were satisfied with their jobs and had pleasing workplace environments. 50 percent of people were seeking jobs and said that they would prefer a job in a company where the physical environment is good. Brill et al. (1984) ranked factors, which affect productivity according to their importance. The factors are sequenced based on the significance: Furniture, Noise, Flexibility, Comfort, Communication, Lighting, Temperature and the Air Quality. Amina Hameed 2009 adapted from Springer Inc (1986) stated that an insurance company in a study revealed that the best ergonomic furniture improved performance by 10 to 15 percent. Leaman (1995) attempted to find the relationship between indoor environment, dissatisfied employees and their productivity. The results revealed that the productivity of the work is affected because the people were unhappy with temperature, air quality, light and noise levels in the office. The productivity level was measured by the method of self reported measurement, which is a 9 point scale from greater than -40 and less than +40 percent (loss/gain). The data collected was correlated and results said that the coefficient of correlation (r)=0.92 and the correlation exists between people who showed dissatisfaction with their indoor environment and those reporting that their productivity is affected by the office environment. Transition of closed offices to open offices. Open offices are distinguished from closed offices as having minimal floor-to-ceiling divisions inside the building shell other than structural or supporting elements. Problems with inadequate privacy and personal control have largely been replicated and extended by subsequent research to include impaired organizational performance, greater stress and cognitive workload, lower intrinsic motivation, more difficulty in concentrating, and less likelihood of adjusting so-called ergonomic furniture among workers in open-plan offices compared with those in enclosed offices (Jay L. Brand 2009 adapted from Banbury Berry, 2005) Maher and von Hippel (2005), measured 60 male and 49 female office workers in a field study of two open-plan office environments. Their results pointed to the importance of individual differences and salient job characteristics, as well as to a discrepancy between the visual-symbolic nature of partial enclosures and their actual effectiveness as acoustic barriers. These findings suggest that employees engaged in complex tasks or with low stimulus-screening ability prefer enclosed offices. Young office employees prefer to spend a greater proportion of their time working in groups or teams than individually. Based on the available literature, it must be concluded that any individual, group, or organizational advantages of moving from closed to open offices depend on a conceptual framework that links a number of merely interesting assumptions still lacking adequate empirical investigation. What appear on the surface to be compelling claims of improved communication, collaboration, community, creativity, and innovation among employees in open offices have received only mixed support at best. Factors affecting Office ergonomics The futureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦depends on how we develop human interfaces that create a match between the internal rhythms of the operator and the computer. ( Harry C. Sweere (2002) Harry C. Sweere (2002) conducted a study to investigate on the ergonomics factors involved in optimum computer workstation design. He pointed out the factors that are involved in the design of a computer workstation. The goal of conducting his research was to offer a practical guide to interpret published ergonomic guidelines and the anthropometric data that can be used to create a user friendly, ergonomically correct computer work environment. According to Harry C. Sweere (2002) the factors involved in the design of a computer workstation are namely:- à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Visual display unit (VDU) adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Keyboard placement/adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Work surface adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Chair design/adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Foot rests à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Wrist rests à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Glare screens à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lighting, task lighting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ease of adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Accessibility to components à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human Computer Interfaces (HCIs) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Space savings All of the above issues concern themselves with the reduction or elimination of a class of physical disorders associated with poor ergonomic design known as Musculoskeletal Stress Disorders (MSDs), which result in: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Eye, neck and back strain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fatigue, headache à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Wrist, hand, elbow and shoulder diseases such as à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Carpal Tunnel Syndrome à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Tenosynovitis à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Tendonitis à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Synovitis Some of the main causes of eye, neck and back strain, which cause visual problems and wrist, hand, elbow and shoulder diseases are: Improper Visual Display Unit screen height and the inability to adjust the screen height to individual preferences Improper Visual Display Unit viewing distance and the inability to adjust the same Improper Visual Display Unit viewing angle and the difficulty of adjusting the viewing angle especially of larger monitors Improper keyboard vertical, fore and aft and tilt positioning. A good ergonomic design principle must be applied to give the operator or a range of operators the optimum man-machine interface and the adjustability required to prevent discomfort and prevent workplace injuries. In many cases the specialised video display mounting technology developed for these work environments can be applied to the desktop to provide ergonomic adjustability and space saving benefits for this environment as well. Screen Height The recommended screen height for VDT monitors is that the top of the monitor screen should be set at or slightly below (approximately 1-2) the eye height of the user when the user is sitting or standing in a comfortable, relaxed position. Whenever possible the screen height should be variable to accommodate personal preferences throughout the day. Harry C. Sweere (2002) Screen Tilt Ideally an upward tilt with the bottom of the screen tilted toward the operator provides optimum viewing because it provides a consistent focal length when scanning from the top of the screen to the bottom. A tilt range of 12 ° to 20 ° is ideal depending upon the size of the monitor. (Harry C. Sweere (2002) Screen Distance from Operator Normally the monitor screen should be placed as far away as possible from the operator, consistent with the ability to read the information presented on the screen. A good rule of thumb for most installations is that the monitor screen should be placed at arms length, with the provision to move the monitor back and forth to suit individual needs being the ideal. Keyboard Height/Positioning Keyboards should be placed at a height that allows the operator to operate the keyboard with the forearms level and hands sloping slightly downward. A negatively tilting keyboard, allowing the operator to keep the wrinkles out of the top of the wrists is ideal. Fore and aft positioning of the keyboard should be consistent with allowing the hands to move easily over the keyboard with forearms level and elbows at the sides, maintaining a 90 ° 110 ° angle between upper and lower arms. Screen/Keyboard Height Variance Anthropometric data for the average range of male to female operators indicates that the top of the monitor screen to centerline of the keyboard placement should range from 20 to 22 with 21 being a good set-up for most applications. Seating Although Lueder and Noro (1994) remains an excellent reference for most of the important considerations related to user-centered seating design, more recent work has enlarged on the importance of an integrative systems framework for predicting seated comfort and discomfort. User-centered seating evaluations tend to emphasize user outcomes associated with long-term sitting such as low back disorders (Jay L.Brand 2009 adapted from Corlett, 2006; George, 2002). Marras (2005) reviewed research that demonstrated interactions between basic tissue and musculoskeletal biomechanics with individual differences (e.g., personality and gender. In light of Marrass review, practitioners should at least realize that occupant-centered design principles that include user characteristics as well as organizational and task contexts are critical, in addition to seating design itself, for preventing or ameliorating low back disorders among office workers. Av. Female 59.4 44 Improving the Human Interface with Computers Ergonomic studies done years ago indicate that screen positioning and keyboard adjustability are some of the most important factors in providing a comfortable work environment and preventing a broad range of MSDs associated with computer use. Disorders such as eye, neck and back strain, fatigue, headaches, and wrist, hand, elbow and shoulder diseases such as Carpal Tunnel Syndrome can all be dramatically improved through use of good ergonomic design. The foregoing paper is based upon sound ergonomic ground rules and scientific anthropometric data, which can be used by computer workstation designers to help provide an optimum human interface for their computers. Workstation designers are urged to consult with a certified Ergonomist who is familiar with the applicable anthropometric data and computer workstation ergonomic standards for corroboration of the recommendations made for each application. In order to meet such ambitious demands, a broader, systems view for office ergonomics must be adopted (Jay L. Brand 2009) adapted from Bettendorf, 1998). Such a framework fully acknowledges the influence of additional psychosocial, socio-technical, and organisational layers beyond individual human-workstation interactions. Whether or not a foot rest should be recommended depends somewhat on seat height, seat back angle, and seat pan angle as well as on knee clearance considerations related to desk surface height, placement of input devices, and the relative position of these components to one another. (Jay L. Brand 2009) After all, maintaining neutral body postures in any particular limb or body segment should not require that other limbs or body segments assume awkward postures. Maintaining neutral postures and neutral loadings for users requires simultaneous design of the physical components of the environment, their spatial relationships to one another, the users behavioral interaction with each component, and task requirements. (Jay L. Brand 2009) Marshall et al (1999) investigated the influence of complex wrist and forearm postures on wrist range of motion (ROM). Although their results relate more to human functionality constraints than to awkward postures per se, they still illustrate the necessity of an interactive systems framework for applying basic ergonomics research to practical office design problems. Wrist postures cannot be evaluated independently of elbow position, and therefore the design of keyboards or mice cannot be optimized without also considering the design and placement of forearm or wrist suppor. (Jay L. Brand ( 2009)) Helander, Little, and Drury (2000) found that seat height and seat pan angle in particular were interdependent, even when participants adjusted a single chair in isolation-that is, adjustments of one influenced adjustments of the other. An applied example of interdependence among ergonomics principles given in Smith and Cohen (1997) involves the need for a headrest if people use a reclined posture, either to decrease spinal loading. Allie et al (2005) suggested that human-machine system outputs (performance/productivity), user symptoms ( pain, comfort, and discomfort ratings; workload) user preferences and expectations ( spontaneously adjusted settings/positions of office furniture and equipment), biomechanical/ musculoskeletal factors (awkward postures; muscle tension, sensory/perceptual conditions (visual acuity; visual accommodation responses; color responses individual differences ), and task requirements must be taken into consideration when managing office ergonomics. Training A related development since Smith and Cohens (1997) masterful review of the office ergonomics literature involves the importance of placing ergonomics findings within their larger psychosocial and organizational contexts. One relevant aspect of this higher-order context relates to the quality of education and training about the elements and importance of ergonomics design guidelines and other interventions (Smith Bayehi, 2003). The value of basic ergonomics information within applied settings often depends on the effectiveness of such training/orientation programs, as well as on individual differences (Levitt Hedge, 2006). Recent reviews have affirmed the well-known risk factors in the development of musculoskeletal difficulties among office workers: frequency/repetition, awkward or static postures, excessive muscle loads, inadequate recovery/ rest periods and cool temperatures. Ambient and Task Lighting The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (Jay L. Brand, 2009) adapted from IESNA, 2004) recommends maximum luminance ratios of 1:3 between central task materials and the immediate visual surround (approximately 25 ° visual angle, centered at fixation) and 1:10 between task materials and more remote surroundings. Unfortunately, in actual practice, the conditions relevant to these recommendations are rarely measured and anecdotal evidence suggests that luminance ratios often exceed this advice. In addition to their helpful review of previous lighting research that is salient for the design of office lighting, Sheedy, Smith, and Hayes (2005) employed a laboratory experiment featuring fixed head position to clarify and extend current design recommendations. Distinguishing between disability and discomfort glare they described transient adaptation effects from fixating back and forth between two disparate luminance levels-a frequent situation confronting employees in office work environments. Sheedy et al. compared younger (N = 20, mean age 27.9 years, range 23-39) and older (N = 17, mean age 55.5 years, range 47-63) participants performing a central task (presented at 91 cd/m2) at surround luminances of 1.4, 2.4, 8.9, 25.5, 50, 91, 175, 317, and 600 cd/m2. Disability glare was assessed with low-contrast (20%) visual acuity charts; discomfort glare was measured with a questionnaire and preferred (surround) luminance by the method of adjustment. Younger participants performed b est at a surround luminance of 50 cd/m2 and older ones at 91 cd/m2 (equivalent to task luminance). Surround luminance influenced transient adaptation at low but not high levels for both age groups. The design of lighting and day lighting has also experienced a shift from direct guidelines such as adjustable task lighting to provide adequate luminance and legibility/ contrast for work materials or the elimination of glare to the importance of the larger, perceptual context for understanding user-centered design. (Jay L. Brand 2009) However, some evidence paints a more optimistic picture of providing useful, objective guidelines for office lighting. Jay L. Brand (2009) (adapted from Newsham and Veitch (2001)) derived several practical guidelines, including the follow

Technology :: essays research papers fc

Systems and Technology Electronics Unit 1 - 2005 Index Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Log. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 What Technology is Used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 How and Why was it developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Advantages and Disadvantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Who is Affected. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Log Friday 22nd April – Interviewed John Margheriti about BrakeQuips Brake Hose Manufacturing System. Duration: 30 minutes. Took many notes. Monday 25th April – Did introduction page and started to right up ‘What Technology was used’ page with notes from interview. Tuesday 26th April – Finished the ‘What Technology was used’ page Wednesday 27th April – Realized that I didn’t have enough notes to continue Thursday 28th April – Interviewed John Margheriti about BrakeQuips Brake Hose Manufacturing System for a second time. Duration: 10 minutes. Took more notes. Monday 2nd May – Wrote up ‘Advantages and Disadvantage’ and ‘Who is affected’. Tuesday 3rd May – Wrote up ‘How and why is was developed’ and Conclusion Wednesday 4th May – Put finishing touches and completed assignment Introduction In the automotive industry, the ‘ON DEMAND’ concept is very important.

Harnessing Solar Energy

Harnessing of Solar Energy: Photosynthesis versus Semiconductor Based Solar Cell Photosynthesis and semiconductor-based solar cells are both used to harness solar energy from the sun – photosynthesis for plants and semiconductor based solar cells for human beings. Photosynthesis consists of light reactions and dark reactions. It is a process in which carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and light energy are utilized to synthesize an energy-rich carbohydrate like glucose (C6H12O6) and to produce oxygen (O2) as a by-product.Simply put, photosynthesis is a process that transfers energy from the sun (solar energy) into chemical energy for plants and animals. Photosynthesis is a vital process among plants, algae and some bacteria that are able to create their own food directly from inorganic compounds using light energy so that they do not have to eat or rely on nutrients derived from other living organisms. A semiconductor-based solar cell is devised to convert light to electric curr ent.The solar cell directly converts the energy in light into electrical energy through the process of photovoltaics (a field of semiconductor technology involving the direct conversion of electromagnetic radiation as sunlight, into electricity). Solar cells do not use chemical reactions to produce electric power, and they have no moving parts. Most solar cells are designed for converting sunlight into electricity. In large arrays, which may contain many thousands of individual cells, they can function as central electric power stations analogous to nuclear, coal-, or oil-fired power plants.The conversion of sunlight into electrical energy in a solar cell involves three major processes: absorption of the sunlight in the semiconductor material; generation and separation of free positive and negative charges to different regions of the solar cell, creating a voltage in the solar cell; and transfer of these separated charges through electrical terminals to the outside application in th e form of electric current. Comparisons Photosynthesis and semiconductor-based solar cells both get their energy from the sun and convert it into a form that is needed either by plants or humans (Vieru, 2007). The first two steps of photosynthesis involve capturing photons released from the sun and using that energy to create a flow of electrons. From there, photosynthesis involves using that electrical energy to create chemical energy† (Stier, 2009). The products of photosynthesis are sugars to feed plants. Semiconductor-based solar cells also capture photons that use energy to create a flow of electrons which create electrical energy. A final similarity between photosynthesis and solar cell technology is that â€Å"a semi conductor has solar cells that trap energy from the sun and convert it into electricity.Plants have cells that trap energy from the sun and convert it into useful products† (Haile & O’Connell, 2005). Contrasts The first contrast is in the conv ersion of energy trapped by the sun – photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical energy used by plants and semiconductor-based cells convert solar energy into electricity used by humans. The solar panels for semiconductors are manmade and photosynthesis comes from a natural process. Finally, photosynthesis has been around for billions of years making it the oldest technology on earth (Stier, 2009).Charles Fritts created the first solar panel in 1883 which means the semiconductor has been around for about 229 years – a mere zygote to photosynthesis. Thermodynamics Semiconductor-based solar cells and photosynthesis both use the laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is the study of the conversion of energy between heat and other forms, mechanical in particular and it has three laws. The first law of thermodynamics says that energy is conserved, it is neither created nor destroyed but can change form. This is called energy conservation.The second law of thermodynami cs says that systems always tend to be in states of greater disorder. As disorder in the universe increases, the energy is transformed into less usable forms. The third law of thermodynamics is usually stated as a definition: the entropy of a perfect crystal of an element at the absolute zero of temperature is zero. Thermodynamics apply to photosynthesis by plants transforming sunlight energy into food – this is an example of the first law. During the process of photosynthesis plants also lose energy because they to not convert all of he energy trapped from the sun into food. Some of the energy is lost in the process – this demonstrates the second law of thermodynamics. Plants needing to trap energy from the sun constantly demonstrates the final law of thermodynamics because the cycle is repeated. In semiconductor-based solar cells energy from the sun is converted to electricity – this is the first law. Because energy is lost in the conversion, the second law of thermodynamics is applied here. Finally, the cells have to continually obtain energy from the sun which obeys the third law of thermodynamics (Heckert, 2007).Solar energy has been around for billions of years whereas semiconductor-based solar cells have only been around a little over 200 years. In writing this, I have discovered that solar energy is harnessed by both photosynthesis and semiconductor-based solar cells to convert energy into food and electricity to be used by plants and human beings. Both photosynthesis and semiconductor-based solar cells utilize all three laws of thermodynamics by converting energy, losing energy, and trapping energy constantly. This shows the many similarities and differences between photosynthesis and semiconductor-based solar cells.

opinion essay outline Essay Example

opinion essay outline Essay Example opinion essay outline Essay opinion essay outline Essay Essay Topic: Opinion opinion essay outline BY unD3RoaTh Coffee is enjoyed by millions of people around the world every day. This website is a science-based resource developed for health care and other professional audiences and provides the latest information and research into coffee, caffeine and health. Login coffee health topicsresearch centrein-practicemedia centreabout usabout coffeeresources Cardiovascular health Cancer Fluid balance Gallstones Liver function Summary Liver function in Europe Coffee consumption and liver function Potential mechanisms Conclusion References Downloadable PDF Mental performance Neurodegenerative disorders Pregnancy Sports performance Type 2 diabetes print page Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate coffee consumption may help to reduce the risk of liver cancer, and the risk falls as coffee consumption rises. Epidemiological studies in patients with various liver diseases have all found a positive effect of moderate coffee drinking on limiting disease progression. Patients with alcoholic liver disease who have a higher coffee consumption have a slower rate of fibrosis* than those who drink less coffee. Caffeine consumption is related to less severe fibrosis in patients scheduled for liver biopsy. Coffee consumption is related to slower development of cirrhosis in patients with chronic liver disease. Patients with Hepatitis C-related liver disease, who have a higher consumption of coffee, have a lower rate of disease progression than those drinking less coffee. However, patient stu01es snoul a De Interpreted wltn cautlon as tnere are many conTounaers wnlcn can bias results, e. g. small subject numbers and patients changing their habits or diet as a result of their disease. Several mechanisms underlying the association between moderate coffee consumption and reduced risk of liver cancer and disease progression are under investigation. One of the breakdown products of caffeine, paraxanthine, has been shown to slow down the growth of the type of tissue seen in liver fibrosis, alcoholic cirrhosis and liver cancer. Other alternative mechanisms are related to the anti-carcinogenic effects of cafestol and kahweol, and possible anti- viral effects of chlorogenic acids and caffeic acid. *Many liver diseases cause scar tissue, known as fibrosis, to develop. In the early stages of fibrosis, the liver functions relatively well and few people experience symptoms. But as the inflammation and liver injury continue, scar tissue builds up. This can eventually disrupt the metabolic functions of the liver and lead to cirrhosis in which the liver is severely scarred, its blood flow restricted and its ability to function severely impaired. This information is intended for healthcare and professional audiences. Please consider the environment before printing. homecoffee health topicsresearch centrein-practicemedia centreabout usabout coffeeresources